Browsing by Author "Samaraweera, A.M."
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Item Analysis of Yield and Some Physicochemical Properties of Tallow Rendered from Leather Industry Waste(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2010) Vinothsanker, S.; Wickramasinghe, W.; Samaraweera, A.M.; Cyril, H.WFlesh samples collected from fleshing waste of leather factory were heated and tallow was collected as melted fat. The tallow yields were compared on the basis of gender, region, and species. There are significant differences (P<0.05) in tallow yields obtained from cattle with respect to gender and region (Up country and low country), There is no significant difference (P< 0.05) among tallow extracted from males and females of buffalo as well as between the tallow from cattle (Low country) and buffalo (Low Country). The iodine, saponification, acid values and free fatty acid and % of crude fat contents were169.2, 301.0 mg KOH/g, 51.78 mg KOH/g, 0.5 as % of oleic acid and 37.66% respectively. Ash value and moisture contents were 0.16 mg/g and 1.38% respectively. Extracted tallow complies with the CODEX standards except for acid and saponification value for edible fats but cannot be recommended for human consumption unless further investigations for mineral contamination are conducted. Higher saponification values lower the suitability of tallow for soap and candle production. Key words: Tallow, Rendering, Yield, QualityItem Biodiesel Production from Tallow(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2012) Gamlath, G.S. D; Samaraweera, A.M.; Wickramasingha, W.K.Biodiesel from inedible beef tallow, mostly produced by leather manufacturing can provide an alternative for petroleum diesel. Tallow which is attached to the flesh side of the raw hide is considered as waste in leather Manu factoring process. This waste tallow can be used to produce biodiesel. It will reduce tl1e amount of tanners waste materials and also it will reduce the cost of removing ta very wastes. Methyl esters are the product of Tran’s esterification of fat and oil with methanol using an alkaline catalyst (KOH). In addition, the process yields glycerol, which has large applications in other industries, such as pharmaceuticals, food and plastic industries. The process of trans esterification is a Elected fry various conditions such as mode of reaction condition, alcohol to tallow molar ratio, kind of alcohol, type and amount of catalysts, reaction time, temperature and purity of reactants (Cunha «/ o/., 2009).Item A Case Study : Factors Affecting on Milk Production of Contract Farmers’ of the Swiss Cheese Company Private Limited in Nuwara-eliya District(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2010) Rifky, A.L.M.; Samaraweera, A.M.; Jayasinghe, J.V.L.C.; Mahipala, M.B.P.K.This study investigated the factors affecting on milk production of the contract dairy cattle farmers' of Swiss Cheese Company Pvt. Ltd. in Nuwara-eliya district. A field survey was carried out using 50 farmers in Queensberry, Bogahawatta, Maskeliya, Kellewatta and Rozella villages. A pre-tested structured questionnaire was used. The investigated farmers were virtually landless and farming is done in extremely small (118±8.7 m2) block of land, in most cases owned by commercial tea plantations. Herd size was found to be 2.26±0.18 with low number of lactating cows (1.0±0.12). Although, almost all cattle farmers practice stall feeding (96%), majority of them (68%) depend entirely on naturally grown low quality, mix weeds. The roughage and concentrate offered were 47.8±4.35 and 1.1±0.09 kg/cow/d, respectively. Although, the temperate cross bred dairy cows managed were at their 4±0.4th parity, the milk production was found to be considerably low (6.7±0.78 L/cow and 9.2±1.14 L/herd). Age at first calving was 34±0.2 and the calving interval was 14±0.2 in months. Cost benefit analysis showed that the B/C ratio (per herd) was 2.36±0.359, thus the farmers gain profits from cattle keeping. The regression analysis reviled that calving interval, percentage lactating cows, expenditure, on concentrate, Al, veterinary service and the amount of roughage offered are the factors that significantly (P<0.05) affect on herd milk production. Farmers' knowledge in cattle keeping was found to be significantly low possibly due to low level of formal education. According to perception of farmers', lack of capital for improve housing facilities, unavailability of forage source, low milk productivity of cattle and low farm-gate milk price were identified as constraints in cattle farming in the studied area. Herd milk production from contract farmers could be improved by introduction of better feeding (i.e. concentrate and roughage) strategies. Key words: Cattle, Milk production, Feeding, Calving interval, ExpenditureItem Comparison of Properties of Leather Made using Plant Oil and Fish Oil as Fatliquors(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2013) Dunukedeniya, D.M.H.E.; Samaraweera, A.M.; Tharangani, R.M.H.; Wickramasingha, W.The skin of animal which has been processed to retain its flexibility, toughness, and water proof nature is known as leather (Deluca and Longley, 2008). Leather is a durable and flexible material created via the tanning of animal raw hide and skin, primarily cattle hide. In shoe making process flexibility of the leather is very important. In addition to that leather should be water proof to avoid wearing leather clothes, shoes, hand bags and etc. Major leather making processes involves soaking, tanning, retanning, fatliquoring and finishing (Anon, 2011). Among the steps, fatliquoring is the most critical step in the leather manufacturing procedure. Fatliquoring is the process of introducing oil into a skin following tannage but before the leather is dried (Sivakumar et al., 2007). Therefore, this research was carried out to introduce Castor oil and Gingerly oil as fat liquors as a replacement for high cost fish oil. Methodology This study was carried out at Ceylon Leather Products PLC (CLPLC). The laboratory analysis was done at CLPLC and Uva Wellassa University laboratories. For the fatliquoring purpose, castor oil and gingerly oil were selected according to the lubrication power and unsaturation level of the oil. Then, the selected oils were sulfated using 10% and 20% sulfation levels (Anon, 2011) and were used for the fatliquoring purpose, where fish oil was used as the control. The wet blue of cow hides were selected which used for manufacturing of cow tung lining leather. surface area were selected and divided into five samples. After fatliquoring, retanning, toggle drying and staking was carried out for all treatments with equal time and relevant chemical recipe. Finally, the finishing of leather was done by applying color using hand pad and wax using spray machine. Finally the tensile strength and distention were measured using a universal testing machine and a lastometer, respectively. Then sensory evaluation was conducted to evaluate the softness, fullness, loose grain, oiliness in leather surface and the overall acceptability using 10 trained panelists. The sensory data were analyzed using non-parametric procedure, using the Friedman test incorporated in MINITAB 16 software package. Complete Randomized Design (CRD) was used and data obtained were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) incorporated in MINITAB 16 with 95% confidence level (p=0.05). Results and Discussion There is no significant difference in distension of the leather versus different fat liquors used (p>0.05). However, the highest and the lowest mean values for distension were given by gingerly oil with 20% sulfation level (according to the weight of the oil) and castor oil with 10% of sulfation level (according to the weight of the oil), respectively (Figure 1). Higher sulfation levels in oil resulted in higher values in distension due to increased penetration ability of oil into the hide (Anon, 2011).Item Comparison of Properties of Vegetable Tanned Leather made from Imported Mimosa and Locally Available Tanning Agents(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2013) Wijethunge, G.P.R.D.; Samaraweera, A.M.; Tharangani, R.M.H.; Wickramasinghe, W.Leather is a product produced by skins and hides that have been treated to preserve them and make them suitable for use. Leather is a major by-product of meat industry. In Sri Lanka, buffalo, cow and goat hides are used mainly for leather industry producing leather products such as shoes, bags, belts. There are two methods of tanning used in leather production such as vegetable tanning and mineral tanning. In vegetable tanning, plant extracts are used as tanning agent/ tannin and mimosa, an imported product at a high cost is used. In vegetable tanning process there are two types of tannin as catechole and pyragallol (Reed, 1972). Mimosa and tea waste contain catechole tannin and king coconut contains pyragallol tannin. This study was undertaken to find out the properties of locally available tanning agents as an alternative for leather tanning compared to commercially used mimosa. Methodology This study was carried out at the Ceylon Leather Products PLC, Mattakkuliya. Laboratory analysis was done at CLP and Uva Wellassa University laboratories. Cow and buffalo hides were used separately for the leather tanning process. Three tanning agents, mimosa powder, tea waste extract and extract from king coconut husks were used as treatments with three replicates for each treatment. her production process (tanning, bleaching, fat liquoring, drying and plating) was carried ). Tannin extraction from both tea waste and king coconut husk was done manually. King coconut husk was chopped to get tannin extract and tannin density was increased by boiling. Tea waste was boiled to extract tannin from the waste and increased density using high amount of tea waste. During tanning period density and pH of tanning media were adjusted at four days intervals according to the requirement. Tanning penetration and pH changes of the media was measured. Yield, thickness reduction, water absorption, hardness, shrinking temperature and tensile strength were measured in final leather. The sensory evaluation for softness, fullness and overall acceptability of final leather was done using 10 trained panelists. The sensory data were analyzed using non-parametric procedure, according to the Friedman test using Minitab 16 software. Complete Randomized design was conducted and data from tannin absorption, pH changes and properties of leather were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedure of Minitab 16 software. Tannin absorption was different with treatments. Mimosa has the highest absorption rate both in cow and buffalo hides (Figure 1). However, absorption rate was low compared to other day. But considering tea and king coconut it absorption was low at the beginning and then gone high and again low with the time (Figure 2). That could be due to type of tannin and purity of them.Item Comparison of the Effectiveness of Fertilizer Produced from Tannery Waste with Synthetic Fertilizer for Plant Growth(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2013) Asangika, H.L.T.; Samaraweera, A.M.; Herath, H.M.S.K.; Wickramasinghe, W.Tanning is a process by which hides are converted into leather. There are large amount of waste generated during leather processing. Among them fleshing waste, the removed flesh parts from the limed skin during fleshing operation are produced in large quantities (Rach et al., 1997). Animal fleshing, generated from pre-tanning operations constitute about 50 to 60% among tannery solid wastes that are high in protein (50.9%) and collagen (3.5%) (Anim, 2013). Conversely, nitrogen is the most important nutrient which is required for plant growth (Abubakar et al., 2004). Therefore, animal flesh can be used as a good source of nitrogen for the plant growth and this research was carried out to produce liquid nitrogen fertilizer from fleshing waste generated in the tannery. Methodology Flesh samples were collected from Ceylon Leather Products PLC at Mattakkuliya in Sri Lanka. Enzymatic and Alkaline hydrolysis were done separately to hydrolyze the flesh using Erhavit DMC (a proteolytic enzyme) and carbide lime, respectively. Carbide lime (6%), Erhavit DMC (0.4%) and water (200%) were used according to the weight of the flesh (5 kg each) for hydrolysis at 11-13 pH and 37 C and 5 g of bactericide was added to each mixture. Three replicates were done for each treatment and liquid extracts were collected on day 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 to measure the Soluble N % using kjedhal method. Liquid extracts which gave the highest nitrogen content (%) were selected from each treatment as liquid N fertilizer. According to the trials liquid extract from day 6 alkaline hydrolysate and day 10 enzymatic hudrolysate were selected. Selected alkaline and enzymatic hydrolysates, urea (positive control) and without any N fertilizer (Negative control), were applied to 14 days old lettuce plants (Lactuca sativa) to check the effectiveness of fertilizer. Equal quantities of phosphorous and potassium were added to all treatments considering the nutrient requirement of the lettuce plant. Four treatments consisted three replicates including three lettuce plants per replicate. Complete Randomized Design (CRD) was conducted and data was analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and mean comparison was done by Tukey test. Results There is a significant difference among the four treatments and number of leaves of the plant (p<0.05). According to the Figure 1 treatment one was the best because it gave the highest mean value (12.967) compared to other treatments while treatments. Similarly, there is a significant difference among the four treatments and height of the plant in the experiment. According to Figure 2 treatment two was the best because it gave the highest mean value (22.600) compare to other treatments.Item Development of drinking yoghurt by incorporating corn (Zea mays) milk and corn seeds(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2015) Mendis, R.I.W.; Abesinghe, A.M.N.L.; Samaraweera, A.M.; Gunawardhane, L.K.A.Cereal grains are considered as important sources of dietary proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals and fiber for people all over the world (Chavan and Kadam, 1989). Corn (Zea mays) is locally grown cereal that can be purchased at low price from several areas in Sri Lanka. Corn milk is considered as a new innovation, especially in making yoghurt based products. Vegetable based corn milk yoghurt is an alternative to substitute the cow milk based yoghurt. Drinking yogurt is the fastest growing food and beverage category in worldwide (Yasni and Maulidya, 2013). However, still value added drinking yoghurts are rare in Sri Lankan market. Adding cereal grains is a perfect way to upgrade a drink to a nutritious breakfast. Therefore, this study was conducted to develop yoghurt by incorporating corn (Zea mays) milk and corn seed to cow milk. Methodology The study was carried out at Lucky Lanka Milk Processing Com. Ltd (LLMP), Matara and Uva Wellassa University. Six experimental trials with different treatments were conducted. In trial I, mature fresh corn seeds, mature boiled corn seeds and germinated corn seeds were separately used to extract corn milk and the best extract of corn milk was evaluated by sensory properties (odor, taste, color and mouth feel) using untrained panelist. In trial II the most compatible sugar (8%, 9% and 10% w/v) and gelatin (0%, 0.2% and 0.4% w/v) levels for different corn milk percentages (5%, 10%, 15% and 20% w/v) were identified. After selection of appropriate combinations of sugar and gelatin levels, trial III was done to select the best corn milk incorporation level by narrow downing the corn milk percentages (6%, 8%, 10%, 12% and 14%). Preserved in sugar syrup and boiled corn seeds were crushed into two sizes (> 3.15 mm and 2 mm –3. 15 mm) to prepare different types of corn seeds. Trial IV was carried out to select best corn seeds particles on the textural basis and trial V was done to assess the consumer acceptability for the presence of corn seeds in the corn milk incorporated drinking yoghurt. Finally three treatments (trial VI) were prepared and evaluated on sensory, chemical and microbiological properties. The sensory evaluation was done using 35 untrained panelists. In chemical analysis, proximate analysis (moisture content, crude fat, total solid, crude protein, ash and crude fiber content) was conducted. pH value and titratable acidity were evaluated and microbiological analysis was done for Yeast and Moulds, and Escherichia coli for three weeks in one day interval. The sensory data were analyzed using Friedman nonparametric test. Complete Randomized Design was conducted and data obtained from chemical and microbiological tests were analyzed by Analysis of Variance using the General Linear Model procedure of SAS. Significant means of treatments were separated using the Least Significant Difference test (P< 0.05). Result and Discussion In trial I, boiled corn seeds (mature) based method was selected to extract corn milk. Other two methods were rejected due to the unpleasant odour and taste which may be due to the activation of various food enzymes and breaking down the higher molecular components to simple molecules during germination. Eight per cent sugar (w/v) for 5% corn milk (w/v) and 10% sugar (w/v) for other 10%, 15% and 20% corn milk (w/v) incorporation levels were selected due to desirable sweetness. The gelatin level (w/v) was selected as 0% due to the presence of appropriate drinking yoghurt properties including texture, mouth feel, appearance and viscosity. The whey separation has been prevented by stabilizing effect of corn starch in corn milk. In sensory evaluation, 8% corn milk incorporation level was significantly highly preferred by panelist with respect to mouth feel, taste and overall acceptability (P<0.05). However, there is no significant difference in color and aroma of the three treatments (P>0.05) (Figure 01). Addition of corn milk had no influence to change colour and aroma of the product. Overall acceptabilty 6 4 2 0 Aroma 7% corn milk incorporation level 8% corn milk incorporation level Taste Mouth feel 9% corn milk incorporation level Figure 01. Web diagram for level of corn milk incorporation in sensory evaluation In trial IV, sugar syrup based method was rejected due to hardness of the seeds and crushed boiled corn seeds were selected. Further, the sensory results revealed that the preference (taste, aroma, mouth feel, color and overall acceptability) for corn seeds >3.15 mm or 2 mm to 3.15 mm particles incorporated drinking yoghurt is less whereas preference for corn milk incorporated drinking yoghurt without corn seeds was high. The observed difference is due to the disturbance for the drinkable property of product by presence of corn seed particles. The composition of the selected corn milk incorporated drinking yogurt is given in Table 01. There was a significant difference between treatments for change in pH with the storage period (P<0.05). pH values of the T8 (with preservative) and control were not changed dramatically. Control of pH by potassium sorbate could be due to inhibition of the activity of starter culture by inhibiting various enzymes in microbial cell (Rajapaksha et al., 2013). There was a significant difference between treatments with respect to acidity (P<0.05) and titratable acidity increased significantly with storage period and in treatments without preservatives. According to Rajapaksha et al. (2013), titratable acidity of yogurts increased over the time and acidity of yoghurt without potassium sorbate increases drastically than other treatments reflecting the inhibitory activity of potassium sorbate on post fermentation. Table 01. Composition of select corn milk incorporated drinking yoghurt Raw material Percentage Quantity (g) Milk 79.54% 867.03 Dairy cream 1.03% 11.33 SMP 1.42% 15.49 Corn milk 8.00% 87.20 Sugar 10.00% 109.00 Total 100.00% 1090.00 There were no contaminations with Coliform and Escherichia coli and thus safe for human consumption. There were no yeast colonies in T8 and control sample. At day 11, yeast colonies were exceed the SLS standards of <1000 only in T7 (without preservative). Proximate analysis revealed all the physiochemical characteristics of corn incorporated drinking yogurt (protein, fat, ash, fiber and total solid), except moisture significantly higher compared to plain drinking yoghurt (P<0.05). Usually drinking yoghurt does not contain fiber. However, due to addition of corn, milk fiber was increased up to 0.5%. Conclusion Eight per cent corn milk incorporation level with selected sugar (10%) and gelatin (0%) level has best consumer preference with respect to the taste, mouth feel and overall acceptability (P<0.05). Moreover, drinking yoghurt without corn seed particles is preferred by the panelists. Shelf life of product without potassium sorbate is around 11 days at 4 ºC with respect to microbiological analysis and physiochemical analysis.Item Effect of different aerobic and anoxic time periods on the effluent water quality of a sequence batch reactor in a meat processing plant(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2015) Kahandawa, K.P.W.; Abesinghe, A.M.N.L.; Samaraweera, A.M.; Dissanayake, J.K.product manufacturing. It contains high concentrations of organic matter, oil and grease and nitrogenous compounds. Hence, releasing waste water to the environment causes many environmental problems such as contamination of groundwater and eutrophication of surface waters (Rodriguez et al., 2010). The treatment of waste water is especially important in this view. Treatment of wastewater by means of biological process has been widely implemented from urban to industrial wastewater. Sequencing batch reactor (SBR) is a modification of activated sludge process and operates by a cycle of periods consisting of fill, react (alternatively aerobic and anoxic periods), settle, decant, and idle (Mahvi, 2008). In the SBR process there is no standard time combination for aerobic and anoxic period. It will depend on the effluent waste water components and vary plant to plant. Currently aerobic and anoxic period is operated as 2 hr aerobic and 1 hour anoxic period in the waste water treatment plant of CIC meat processing company. The present investigation was undertaken to study best time combination of aerobic and anoxic time period for simultaneous carbon oxidation, nitrification and denitrification performance of sequencing batch reactor to treat slaughterhouse wastewater. Methodology The current study was carried out at CIC Poultry Farms Pvt Ltd (Processing Plant), Badalgama. Laboratory analysis was done at CIC Processing Plant Laboratory and Uva Wellassa University laboratories. Model structure of aeration tank which has the capacity of 600 L was used to conduct the research experiments. 180 mL of sludge from SBR unit in CIC meat processing plant and 420 mL volume of wastewater was fed to tank each day of the treatment. Air was supplied to the reactor during aerobic phase of react period with the help of diffused aeration system and Anoxic conditions were maintained by switching off the aerators. Eight different combinations of aerobic and anoxic periods were used. Every sequence was operated totally for 20 hrs of react period by alternating the aerobic and anoxic period according to selected different time combinations (Table 01). Table 01: Selected time Combinations for Aerobic and Anoxic time periods Control T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 Aerobic (Hours) 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 4 Anoxic (Hours) 1 2 1 2 1 2 3 4 The best combination of aerobic and anoxic time period was determined by analyzing water quality parameters as, COD, BOD, ammonium nitrogen, total nitrogen, TSS, TDS and pH. Complete Randomized Design (CRD) was conducted and data obtained from chemical and physical tests were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the General Linear Model (GLM) procedure of SAS (SAS Institute Inc., 2000). Significant means of treatments were separated using the Least Significant Difference (P< 0.05) test. Results and Discussion There was a significant difference (P<0.05) between aerobic and anoxic time combinations regarding COD removal, BOD removal, TN removal and ammonium nitrogen removal. 4 hour aerobic and 2 hour anoxic period showed higher COD removal (95%), BOD removal (90%), TN removal (89%), and ammonium nitrogen removal (92%). There was no significant difference (P>0.05) regarding phosphorus removal, TSS removal and TDS removal among different aerobic and anoxic time combinations. Highest COD and BOD removal occurred in 4 hour aerobic and 2 hour anoxic cycle. Second highest COD removal (92%) was achieved during 4-1 react period. This might be due to during 4-2 hr and 4-1 sequence total aerobic react time is higher than other react cycles. Therefore, longer aeration was achieved. Longer aeration period has been found to be effective in achieving higher degree of nitrification and COD, BOD removal according to the findings of Debsarkar et al. (2006). Due to less total aeration time in 4-3 and 4-4 hr cycles, less COD and BOD removal was achieved. That means one cycle was alternatively operated for 20 hrs totally and in the 4-3 and 4-4 cycles has high anoxic time periods. Therefore, less COD and BOD removal occurred (Kundu et al., 2013). Treatment 6 (4-2) is significantly different from other treatments and also treatment 5 has high BOD removal. This may be due to long aeration time and effective denitrification. According to Kishida et al. (2003), BOD concentration of the effluent was relatively high because the oxygen demand by nitrifying bacteria increased the total BOD, when the NH,-N concentration of the effluent was too high (average = 187.1 mg/L). NH,-N concentration of the effluent was high due to partial denitrification. According to this experiment ammonium nitrogen concentration also affect to the BOD removal. And treatment 6 had low level of ammonium nitrogen concentration in effluent water (1.048 mg/L 1.07 mg/L). Longer aeration period (5 hour) has been found to be effective in achieving higher degree of nitrification from Debsarkar et al. (2006). But according to preliminary study at the middle of hour pH is reached to 6.9, but optimum pH for nitrification is 8.2. Therefore, in this experiment longest aeration time per one cycle was selected as 4 hr. According to the statistical analysis, there is no significant difference (P> 0.05) between different aerobic, anoxic time combinations and total dissolved solid and total suspended solids removal. This might be due to activated sludge treatment is not intended to remove dissolved or suspended solids (Sustarsic, 2009). Conclusions The combination of 4 hours aerobic react period and 2 hours anoxic react period has been found to be optimum from the view point of both nitrification and denitrification, and COD, BOD removal. When total aeration time period is low, removal of COD, BOD is not efficient in 4 hr aerobic – 4 hr anoxic and 4 hr aerobic – 3 hr anoxic time combinations.Item Effect of Major Socio-Economic Factors on Dairy Cattle Milk Production in Maho Veterinary Region in Kurunegala District(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2018) Dissanayake, W.A.M.P.M.; Jayawardana, J.M.D.R.; Jayasinghe, J.M.P.; Samaraweera, A.M.; Mapitiya, D.A.Livestock plays a socially and economically significant role in Sri Lankan agriculture providing multi-functional outputs and supplementing family incomes for livelihood security. Therefore, the present study was conducted to identify the effect of major socio-economic factors and constraints on dairy cattle milk production in Maho veterinary region in Kurunegala district. Three hundred and fifty (350) farmers from Maho veterinary region were selected using stratified sampling. Socio- economic and production data were collected using a pre-tested structured questionnaire. Data were subjected to descriptive analysis and multiple linear regressions using Minitab 17 statistical software. Results of the descriptive analysis revealed that majority engaged in dairy cattle farming as a major source of income (58.29%). Of the total farmers, 78.29% practiced semi-intensive rearing while Jersey and Sahiwal were reported as the dominant breeds (38%) within the region. Average daily milk production was 6.20 L cow"' day1. Results of the regression analysis highlighted relationships between breed type, breeding technique, feeding method, concentration type, level of education of the farmer and experience in dairy farming with the daily milk production (P < 0.05). Fitted regression model well predicted the daily milk production (R2 = 94%). It disclosed that breed type, breeding technique, feeding method, concentration type, level of education of the farmer and experience determine the dairy cattle milk production. However, lack of high yielding cross breeds, less success in artificial insemination (AI), low quality pasture and seasonality in pasture production and poor milk collection network were reported as the major constraints. The key findings of this study might promote improving the factors affecting the milk production in Maho veterinary region.Item Investigation of Antibiotic Usage for Dairy Cattle and Antibiotic Residues in Milk in Coconut Triangle(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2013) Perera, W.S.J.; Samaraweera, A.M.; Kurukulasuriya, M.S.; Kanugala, K.A.N.P.Dairy cattle farming in coconut triangle play an important role in the dairy industry of Sri Lanka. Antibiotics are widely used for the health management of these lactating cows. However, the improper usage of antibiotics leads to antibiotic residues in milk which have several adverse effects on human health. Further, antibiotic residues may interfere with bacterial starter culture used for production of value added dairy products such as yoghurt, curd and cheese. Therefore, this study was carried out to identify the most commonly used antibiotics in dairy cattle, to screen milk for antibiotic residues and to study the factors affecting mastitis in dairy cattle of coconut triangle. Stratified random sample of 200 farmers, 20 veterinary offices and 20 pharmacies were selected from Kurunegala and Puttalam districts. Data on farmer information, management system, farmers’ knowledge on antibiotic usage, use of antibiotics in feed and as treatments and hygienic practices in farm were collected using a pre-tested structured questionnaire. A total of 72 milk samples were collected from cows recently treated with antibiotics and antibiotic residues in milk samples were tested by Twinsensor® and Delvotest® commercial kits. According to the results antibiotic residues were found only in 15.9% milk samples whereas majority (84.1%) of tested milk samples were negative. Out of the reported diseases, mastitis is the predominant bacterial disease (87%) which antibiotics are mainly used. Information from farmers, Veterinary offices and pharmacies revealed tetracycline as the highest using antibiotic. Sulfa trimethoprim, cloxacillin, bacitracin and neomycin are antibiotics which are highly used for treatment in mastitis as combinations. According to binary logistic model, hygienic practices, routing testing for mastitis, average milk production, source of income, were significant factors for the occurrence of mastitis. Therefore, it can be concluded that there is a risk of contamination of milk in coconut triangle with antibiotic residues and further studies are needed for the quantification of antibiotic residues. Since antibiotics are heavily used in mastitis, milk contamination with antibiotics can be prevented by reducing the antibiotic usage for prevention and control of mastitis.Item Potential to use extracts from Lawsonia inermis (Marathondhi) leaves and Emblica officinalis (Nelli) fruits as tannin agents in leather manufacturing(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2015) Senaratne, S.M.D.S.C.; Samaraweera, A.M.; Wickramasingha, A.W.In Sri Lanka mainly mimosa bark powder and chesnut powder are used to produce vegetable tanned leather. However, these tannin agents can produce limited number of colors and are imported to Sri Lanka with high import cost. As a result, final vegetable tanned leather products become high in price. Thus, it is necessary to find out locally available, low cost tannin agents to produce vegetable tanned leathers. Emblica officinalis (Nelli) fruits and Lawsonia inermis (Marathondi) leaves are two such locally available tannin agents with considerably high tannin content (nelli fruits-18-35 % (Pushpakumara and Heenkenda, 2012) and Marathondi leaves- 11.12% (Musa, 2012). Therefore, the objective of the present study was to assess the quality of leather prepared using locally available tanning agents, Marathondhi leaves and Nelli fruit extracts. Methodology 3.6 kg of marathondi leaves and 1.2 kg of nelli fruits were first crushed and ground separately. Then it was mixed with 3 L of water and was filtered into separate containers. Same tannin concentration (5 backometer value) was maintained in all containers. Further, a mimosa solution with same concentration was prepared as the control. Then, the buffalo hides were, soaked, dehaired and delimed and partial pickling was also done prior to the tanning according to the leather manufacturing procedure of Ceylon Leather Products PLC. Then, nine hide pieces with 6 x 7 inch was selected from same area of these buffalo hides. Weight and thicknesses of each piece was measured and recorded. After that, solutions were added into separate containers and three pieces of hide were dipped in each container. After hides were dipped, concentration of each solution was increased by 5 backo every four days up to four weeks. Tannin penetration was also measured until it obtains 3 mm. After finishing process, physical parameters, mean penetration rate (mm/day), thickness, mean yield of the leather (%) and mean tensile strength was measured in all treatments and was compared with control. Completely Randomized Design (CRD) was used to allocate treatments and data analysis was done using Minitab 15 software. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used for comparison of data at (significance level of 95%) and. Dunnet’s procedure was used for mean separation. Sensory evaluation was conducted to select the best tannin agent based on the appearance, hardness, fullness and overall acceptability of finished leather using 10 trained panelists and results of the sensory evaluation after analysis by Friedman test. Result and Discussion During tanning of hides Nelli tannin media was seen as light cream color whereas control (Mimosa) and Marathondi media were darker in color. Though, Nelli and Mimosa media had pleasant smell, Marathondi had an unpleasant smell. Nelli was more acidic (pH 3.2) and pH values of Mimosa and Marathondi were pH- 4.6 and pH 4.3, respectively. After the tannin process, loose grain was observed on the Nelli treated hides. Mean penetration rate, yield, thickness reduction and tensile strength were measured as physical parametersItem A preliminary study on Milk Urea Nitrogen values of the Ambewela farm(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2015) Ranaweera, K.K.T.N.; Kurukulasuriya, M.S.; Samaraweera, A.M.; Priyankarage, N.; Mangalika, U.P.L.Feeding management is a key factor in profit maximizing of a dairy farm. Milk Urea Nitrogen (MUN) is a tool that measures the efficiency of protein and carbohydrate feeding to milking cows (Jonker et al., 1999). Implementing routine use of MUN on dairy farms could reduce nutrient loading to natural environments and improve farm profitability (Jonker et al., 2002). According to Kohn (2007) dairy herds should have MUN concentrations between 8 to 12 mg dL . However, the MUN values could be affected by many factors such as environment Feeding management is a key factor in profit maximizing of a dairy farm. Milk Urea Nitrogen (MUN) is a tool that measures the efficiency of protein and carbohydrate feeding to milking cows (Jonker et al., 1999). Implementing routine use of MUN on dairy farms could reduce nutrient loading to natural environments and improve farm profitability (Jonker et al., 2002). According to Kohn (2007) dairy herds should have MUN concentrations between 8 to 12 mg dL . However, the MUN values could be affected by many factors such as environment MUN values to evaluate the dairy herds in the Sri Lanka would be inappropriate, since there were no studies carried out in to determine the baselines of MUN values in Sri Lanka. Therefore, this study has been carried out as a preliminary study, to study about the prevailing MUN values of one of the commercial dairy farm in Sri Lanka. Methodology The study was conducted at Ambewela farm and Veterinary Research Institute, Sri Lanka. Four groups of the milking herd in the Ambewela farm (treatments) which have been made based on the production levels of the cows were used to collect milk samples. Samples from each group were taken once in fortnight during three months’ experimental period. During each sample collection, 15 cows were selected randomly from each group and 50 mL of milk from each cow was obtained after complete milking. Milk from five cows belonging to each group was pooled. Hence, each treatment consisted with three replicates. Milk fat was analyzed using the Gerber method. Solids-non-fat (SNF), protein, salts and lactose contents were measured using a portable ultrasonic milk analyzer (Lactoscan MCC, Milkotronic Ltd., Bulgaria). Lacto meter was used to measure the milk specific gravity. The urea content in milk was estimated according to the method described by Malik and Sirohi (1998) and the optical density of the sample was measured at 450 nm using the spectrophotometer (Cary 50 Conc - 10069600, Agilent Technologies, Australia). In the statistical analysis, according to the normality of the sample data test by Anderson-Darling test, the relationships were evaluated using multiple regression analysis or Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient. STATA S/E 11.2 and Minitab 17 software were used in statistical analysis of the data. The MUN levels were interpreted based on the current recommended levels of Kohn (2007).Item Production characteristics and technical efficiency of buffalo farmers in Thanamalwila veterinary division(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2015) Malcolm, M.B.J.G.R.; Samaraweera, A.M.; Rathnayake, R.M.S.D.At present milk production from large ruminants only meet 17% of the countries requirements (Ministry of livestock and rural community development, 2012). According to Department of animal production and health (2012) Thanamalwila Veterinary division (VD) in Moneragala district has the highest buffalo population in Uva province which is well established over cattle rearing and plays an important role in income generation of rural farm households. Therefore, this study was conducted to identify the important socio-economic determinants of milk production and to estimate the technical efficiency of dairy production in Thanamalwila VD. Materials and methods Study was conducted in Thanamalwila VD. Fifty buffalo farmers were selected using multi stage sampling technique. Random numbers of buffalo farms were selected from each Grama Niladhari division to field survey based on buffalo farm population. Rearing buffalo as primary and secondary income source was the selected criteria for buffalo farmers. Primary data were collected using pre tested structured questionnaire and following models were used in the analysis of stochastic production function and inefficiency model. Then, data were analyzed using Minitab 14 and STATA 11 software packages. Model 1: Cobb-Douglas model = + + + + + + + + + ( − ) Where “ln” denotes logarithms to base e, while, Yi= Milk yield (L animal-1 day-1), X1= Breed, X2= Average birth weight (kg), X3= Condition of the shed , X4= Grazing duration (hours day-1), X5= Labor allocation (hour animal-1 day-1), X6= Frequency of water given (number of times per day), X7= Cost of buffalo farming (LKR per month), X8= Value of feed, Vi= Random variable, Ui= Non negative random variables. Model 2: The inefficiency model specification (Battese and Coelli, 1995), = + + + + + Where, Z1 = Age of the farmer (Year), Z2 = Education level (Year), Z3 = Monthly income level (LKR), Z4 = Experience of the farmer (Year), Wi = Unobservable random variables Result and discussion All the buffalo farmers in the sample were male and majority was belonged to 21-30 age category (30%) and a high proportion (62%) of buffalo farmers had education up to grade 10. Only 6% of respondents had the education level beyond GCE ordinary level. Most of the villages (98%) reared both local as well as exotic river type buffalo breeds and the preferable breed combination was local buffalo and Murrah or Niliravi cross breds. Only 2% of farmers reared solely local buffaloes. Herd size ranged between 2-185 animals and majority of respondents (38%) had a herd size of 21-40. Moreover, the predominant management system (94%) was the extensive management system. Interestingly, one farmer (2%) has practiced the intensive management system. Moreover, 6% of farmers practiced artificial inseminations (AI) in their breeding program. Feed availability, water availability, changes in rainfall pattern, and land availability were the most serious constraints faced by respondents. Elephant attack and illegal smuggling were also critical problems in buffalo farming in the area. The maximum likelihood estimates (MLE) of the parameters of stochastic frontier production function are present in Table 01. The OLS function provided the estimates of the average production function while MLE model provided the estimates of stochastic production frontier. The MLE coefficient for breed, allocation of labour hours day-1 animal-1 and average birth weight shows a positive and significant contribution to determine the output of stochastic production function. Therefore, by improving these aspects the farmer can enhance the milk output by the given MLE. Table 01: Estimates of stochastic production function Variable Coefficient Standard error p value OLS MLE OLS MLE OLS MLE Breed 0.4768** 0.5830*** 0.1834 0.1428 0.013 0.000 Birth weight 0.5367 0.6169** 0.3802 0.2856 0.166 0.031 Shed condition -0.1626 -0.2230 0.1798 0.1375 0.371 0.105 Grazing duration -0.0047 -0.0833 0.2994 0.2237 0.988 0.709 Labour hours 0.0941 * 0.2054 *** 0.0528 0.0564 0.082 0.000 Frequency of water 0.0086 0.1461 0.1152 0.1183 0.941 0.217 supply Cost of buffalo farming 0.0341 0.0187 0.0275 0.0217 0.223 0.391 Feeding method 0.0954 0.0570 0.2038 0.1674 0.642 0.733 Constant -1.1127 -0.7375 1.5874 1.1581 0.487 0.524 OLS= Ordinary Least Square estimation, MLE= maximum Likelihood estimation,*Significant at 10%, **Significant at 5%, ***Significant at 1% Estimated variables of the inefficiency model are represented in Table 02. Monthly income was the only significant variable of inefficiency model in this study. Therefore, farmers with higher monthly income have the capacity to increase the efficiency of milk production. Moreover, farmers had tendency to invest their money on livestock than cash crop cultivation because they considered cash crop cultivation as relatively risky business due to dry climatic condition in the area. Table 02: Technical inefficiency estimates- buffalo farming Variable Coefficient Standard error p-value Age 0.0459 0.039481 0.243 Education level 0.1189 0.615439 0.846 Monthly income -0.0005* 0.000026 0.052 Experience -0.1057 0.085551 0.217 Contact times of VS/LDI -0.3871 1.024504 0.709 *Significant at 10% **Significant at 5% ***Significant at 1% Moreover, mean technical efficiency for buffalo farmers in Thanamalwila VD is 86.83, which indicates that the output could be increased by 13.7%, if all farmers achieved the TE level of the best farmer. Conclusion Coefficients for breed, feed, average birth weight, and level of labor power allocation on dairy industry have significant impact on milk production of buffalo farms in Thanamalwila VD. Moreover, by reducing the technical inefficiency by 13.7% the farmers can increase the milk yield without increasing the level of inputs.Item A Study on Crocodile Behavior (Crocodylus palustris) and Public Value Orientation in Ethimale of Monaragala District(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2015) Wijethilaka, W.G.R.I.; Samaraweera, A.M.; Abesinghe, A.M.N.L.Mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) is principally restricted to Indian subcontinent and the highest number is recorded in Sri Lanka (Da Silva and Lenin, 2010). Crocodylus palustris is categorized as a vulnerable species in IUCN red list (2011). Furthermore, due to destruction of their natural habitats, illegal hunting, fishing activities and crocodile attacks during sand mining, bathing and washing, there is an emergence of this interaction as a human-crocodile conflict. Though the existence of considerable number of C. palustris is recorded in Uva less literature is available on their status in Uva Province of Sri Lanka. Therefore, this study was conducted to understand people’s attitudes, risks, believes and practices towards human crocodile conflict and to study the behavior of crocodile in Ethimale area. Methodology The study was conducted in villages surrounding eight perennial and seasonal tanks (Doser tank, Wattarama tank, Kotiyagala tank, Heekaduwa tank 1 and 2, Karadandara tank, Karakolagaswewa tank and Vila oya) at Ethimale of Monaragala district from May to August 2014. Ninety four individuals were interviewed using a pre-tested structured questionnaire including farmers, fishermen and villagers to determine their awareness, knowledge, practices, believes and attitudes regarding C. palustris. The information on purpose, frequency and duration of water body usage by the villages, crocodile population, their approximate size, migration and their availability throughout the year in the area was gathered through the questionnaire. Moreover, the practices of the people and attitudes regarding crocodiles were identified by gathering information on crocodile attacks, financial damages, people’s reaction when seen crocodiles, offending actions, benefits/uses of crocodiles and threats face by crocodiles. Presence of fecal pellets, footprints, smashed vegetation and cleared basking areas were observed to study the migration and basking behavior. Data analysis was carried out by Microsoft Excel and map was created using ArcGIS software including crocodile migration paths. Results and Discussion Awareness of the people The main water sources of Ethimale were tanks and Vila oya. Therefore, around 97% of the respondents used tanks for their needs daily. Moreover, most of households are by or close to the tanks which explains their close relation with the crocodiles. Knowledge of the people regarding crocodiles Sixty eight percent of the respondents considered that crocodiles were useful and 32% of respondents believed that crocodiles were not useful or did not know the ecological roles played by the crocodiles. According to them, consumption of crocodile meat and egg are the major uses. Around 53% of the respondents have eaten crocodile meat while 5.3% have consumed crocodile eggs. Though few had heard the uses of crocodile hide they have not done any hide processing. Though the respondents have seen crocodiles throughout the day, crocodiles were common on tank sides especially in the morning (6.00 to 8.00 a.m.) and evening (5.30 to 7.00 p.m.). Based on the observations of the respondents, highest crocodile number was reported from Kotiyagala tank (20 to 25), followed by Heekaduwa tank-1 (15 to 20) and Heekaduwa tank-2 (10 to 15). Regarding the approximate length of the largest crocodile seen by the respondents, majority (62%) of has seen largest crocodile in between 2-3 m in length. Nesting season, i.e., from June to August of Crocodylus palustris coincides with the dry season in Monaragala (June to September) (Department of meteorology statistics, 2014). Therefore, the hatching of eggs takes place with the beginning of the rainy season. Around 45% of the respondents have seen crocodile nesting sites at tank bunds, Vila oya sides, canal sides, Vila oya anicut and jungle area which close to tanks.However, 11% of respondents have seen Water Monitors (Varanus salvator) and Land Monitor (Varanus bengalensis) as main predators of crocodile eggs. Among the crocodile deaths observed by the respondents, most of the recorded crocodile deaths were due to human actions such as shooting and hitting when the crocodiles attack to the fishing nets (Specially for hatchlings). Two crocodile attacks to the fishermen while fishing were reported. However, 37% of the respondents have faced some financial damages from the crocodiles as damage to livestock (especially to calves) (37%), loss of fish yield (29%), fish net damage and damage to pet animals. Among them damage to livestock and damage to net and loss of fish yield were common. Moreover, threat from crocodiles was reported as one reason to refrain youngsters from fishery. Attitudes regarding crocodiles Though 77% of the respondents have agreed that the crocodiles have become threat to fishery or daily uses of the water body, 73% of the respondents still believe that conservation programs for crocodiles are essential, since they believe that the number of crocodiles are depleting annually. Moreover, they have suggested translocation of crocodiles (to large tanks, national parks and zoo) and ecotourism to minimize the human crocodile conflict may be due to the ethical reasons since all the respondents are Buddhists. Crocodile migration and basking behavior Crocodiles were migrated during the dry season and they were returned to their original habitats at the beginning of the rainy season. Therefore, crocodile migration was highest during August where all most all the seasonal tanks were dried and low water level was observed in perennial tanks. With the beginning of rainy season in September, crocodiles were returned to their original habitats. Crocodiles were basked commonly during 6.00 am to 9.30 am under direct sun light (average 33°C daily temperature) in open areas such as dead trees in water, on the Vila oya river bank, tank sides/bund and surrounding rocks. With the high day time temperature, they were moved to the tank bottom and come to the top only for breathing meanwhile some crocodiles were moved to burrows. Recommendations to solve human crocodile conflict and conservation To minimize human-crocodile conflict conducting awareness program to villagers including conservation and laws related, installation and maintenance of crocodile excluding areas at bathing places, installing warning sign boards and translocation of crocodiles which trap to fish nets can be done. The crocodile conservation can be done to some extent by sharing conservation and management responsibility among local community. The crocodiles can be an attraction of visitors and create employment opportunities for the local community. Eco- tourism may be a good solution for involving people with their traditional knowledge about crocodile conservation and will be helpful to uplift the local socio-economic conditions. Other than eco-tourism, protection of nesting habitats, initiation of crocodile parks or sanctuary, conservation education and public awareness also can be practiced. Conclusion Majority of the villagers have sound knowledge regarding crocodile population, behavior, migration patterns and availability. Since almost all the people were engaged with the tanks for their daily needs and majority was farmers and fishermen. Though there are several livestock attacks and economic losses from crocodiles no fatal attacks recorded to people. Therefore, majority of the people in Ethimale was having a positive attitudes regarding conservation of crocodiles.Item A Study on Gastrointestinal Parasitism of Nematode and Eimeria spp on Cattle and Goat Units in Mahaberiyathanna Farm(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2010) Kumaragama, K.M.K.R.; Rajapakse, R.P.V.J.; Samaraweera, A.M.; Wijesundara, K.This paper reports the prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes and Eimeria spp in goat and cattle units in NLDB farm, Mahaberiyathanna from March to June 2010. Eggs (EPG) and oocysts (OPG) in a gram of fecal matter and larval counts were obtained from fecal samples of 40 cattle and 80 goats. Goats and cattle were divided into 3 age groups as < 6 month, 6 - 12 month and > 1 year and results were analyzed accordingly. Three genera of gastrointestinal nematodes namely Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Oesophagostomum and Eimeria alljevi and Eimeria arloingi of genera Eimeria were identified in the goat unit, while the Haemonchus and Oesophagostomum were identified in cattle. Eimeria spp were dominant (P<0.05) in goats below 6 month of age and Strongyl spp were dominant (P<0.05) among above one year age group in both cattle and goat units. Goat and cattle farm EPG and OPG value increased significantly (P<0.05) with the rainfall. The goats were sent for grazing while cattle were stall fed and, this can be the reason for the severity of gastrointestinal parasites in goats compared to cattle unit. These observations serve as a useful guide for strategic control of gastrointestinal nematodes and Eimeria spp in Mahaberiyathanna NLDB farm. Key words: Gastrointestinal Nematodes, Eimeria spp, EPG, OPG, Rain fall, Pasture land, Cattle, GoatItem A Study on Present Status of Cattle Farming in Badulla District(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2016) Senadhirajah, S.V.; Samaraweera, A.M.; Wijesundara, R.R.M.K.K.The present study was conducted to determine the level of technical efficiency and production characteristics of house-hold level dairy cattle farms in Badulla district. A total of 165 cattle farms in seven veterinary regions in Badulla district were randomly selected by applying the stochastic production frontier methodology. Technical efficiency estimates were generated for different categories of collected data. The results of the study indicated that technical efficiency of milk production by most of the house-hold dairy cattle farms in above-mentioned veterinary regions is high. The mean technical efficiency was estimated to be 96%, 82%, and 77% in Welimada, Ridimaliyadda and Uvaparanagama veterinary regions, and 88% for intensive farms, 84% for semi semi-intensive farms, 89% for farms with local breeds and 82% for farms with temperature breeds. The results suggested that farms in the sample could increase their level of milk production to a certain percent using the current input quantities efficiently. To enhance farm efficiency there is a need to improve farmers' access to extension services and government subsidies. Provision of education to the farmers, training and orientation of the farmers toward intensive dairy farming practices and modern technologies are the suitable measures to increase the efficiency of milk production. Keywords: Technical efficiency, Stochastic, Production frontier, Cattle farming, MilkItem Technical Efficiency of Cattle Farming in Moneragala Veterinary Region: A Stochastic Frontier Approach(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2013) Thiwyadharsan, R.; Rathnayaka, R.M.S.D.; Samaraweera, A.M.“Farming System is a complex inter-related matrix of soil, plants, animals, implements, power, labour, capital and other inputs controlled in parts by farming families and influenced to varying degrees by political, economic, institutional and social forces that operate at many levels” (Mahapatra, 1992). Dairy sector is the most important of all livestock sub sectors primarily because of the influence it can make on the rural economy. Dairy sector is predominantly based on small holders keeping 2-5 cows. In the dry zone the herds tend to be large, though the animals are mostly of the indigenous types with poor milk yields. However, the production of milk in Sri Lanka has still not yet met the national demand. Increasing the efficiency in production assumes greater significance in attaining potential output at the farm level. There are comparatively less research on ‘technical efficiency’ of dairy farming in Sri Lanka. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the important socio economic determinants of milk production and thereby to find out the technical efficiency of milk production in Moneragala veterinary region. Methodology The Moneragala Veterinary region was selected for this study. The Veterinary regions were arranged in descending order of livestock population. The Moneragala Veterinary region, which has maximum number of livestock population in the district, was selected for the study. A multi stage random sampling technique was used for the selection of the sample/respondent. The study covered 10 villages of Moneragala veterinary region to form the sample of 80 respondents. The data collection was carried out by using the structured questionnaire. This questionnaire was subjected to the pre testing by the survey of ten samples. Empirical model and variables Stochastic Frontier production models (Cobb-Douglas production & inefficiency function) were employed to identify the contributory factors for milk production and the technical efficiency of farmers using dependent variable and independent variables. . Data were coded and analyzed by using the Statistical Package of STATA 11.0 and Minitab 15 software package.