Browsing by Author "Gunathilaka, R.P.D."
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Item Application of Cleaner Production Techniques in Tea Processing(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2012) Perera, H.A.A.U.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.; Nawarathna, D.M.P.C.Tea is the world’s most popular beverage (Anonymous, 1993). Sri Lanka is a world famous tea producer, well known for its inherited taste and aroma and it is the world’s fourth largest producer of tea and the industry is one of the country's main sources of earning foreign exchange with tea accounting for I .S% of the GDP, generating roughly $700 million annually (Dissansyske, 2008). However, during last few decades, the sustainable growth of Sri Lankan tea industry had to face challenges (Jayakodi and Athauda, 2009). In today’s dynamic and turbulent environment, industry survival and growth depends on appropriate technology integration and changing management practices. lt was identified that the Sri Lankan tea industry with a history of over a century is facing global challenges requiring certain changes to the technology, work practices, work norms and attitudes to overcome problems faced at present (Senarathne el al., 2004). Sri Lanka’s COP has been recording steady increases and is now around US 1.7•î per kg, which is well above that of Bangladesh, India, Kenya and Vietnam. Possible ways of enhancing profitability are to fetch attractive prices for their produce, increase their productivity level and to reduce the COP (Yogaratnam, 2007). To address these issues, reduction of wastage and increasing resource efficiency using cleaner production techniques will be possible. Cleaner production is the continuous application of an integrated preventive strategy to processes, products and services, to increase eco-efficiency and to reduce risks to humans and the environment. Cleaner production concept was first introduced by United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) in 1989 as a new innovative approach to resource conservation and environment management (Jayakodi and Athauda, 2009). Cleaner production techniques are important in reducing wastage. Therefore this preliminary study is focused on cleaner Production audit in tca processing giving special reference to Telbedde Estate.Item Awareness of Tea Small Holders on Climate Change: A Case of Tea Small Holders in Badulla District(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2013) Rathnayaka, D.M.W.P.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.Climate change has emerged as one of the most devastating environmental threats. Impacts of climate change on human and natural systems are predicted to be severe. According to the Sri Lanka Country Report on Climate Change (Year), increase of temperature by 2070 will be 0.4 to 3 C. Rainfall increase, as precipitation, is expected by 10% in the wet zone for both dry and wet seasons. The possibility of 10% increase in length of the dry and wet spells in main plantation areas has also been indicated (Wijeratne, 1996). Since tea is primarily a rain-fed crop tea production will be particularly affected unless early efforts are made to help farmers adapt. There is an urgent need to sensitize the farmers regarding climate change and its effects and causes. They need to be supported to increase their resilience to the changing conditions (Pandve, 2007). Adaptation is largely dependent on the availability of information relevant to climate change (Semenza, Ploubidis & George, 2011). Awareness of climate change help tea smallholders plan their production activities and reduce risks and uncertainties associated with farming (Banmeke & Ayanda, 2011). Therefore, this research aimed to investigate the awareness and perception of tea smallholders on climate change. Methodology Hundred and fifty tea small holders were selected from Badulla district by using simple random sampling technique. A structured questionnaire and direct interview method were used to collect data. The questionnaire was pretested using 10 small holders. Identified social factors were age, gender, marital status, religion, farming experience, and education level. Awareness of climate change was achieved through main three criteria namely, awareness that climate change is happening, awareness of the causes of climate change, and awareness of the effects of climate change. These three kinds of awareness were ascertained by using a four point scales, unaware, slightly aware, moderately aware, and full aware. Perception on respondent’s awareness on climate change issues, adaptation methods and sources of information was identified. Data were analyzed descriptively and inferential statistically by using statistical package for the social science (SPSS). General characteristics of the sample were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Chi square test was used to examine the association between socio economic variables and awareness on climate change (happening), awareness of the causes of climate change, and awareness of the effects of climate change.Item Comparative Analysis of Manual and Mechanical Tea Harvesting(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2013) Kanthi, G.M.P.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.; Amarasingha, F.Harvesting operation was critically defined as the most labour intensive and most costly field operation at a tea plantation and therefore the need of innovative strategies to setup for this step was highlighted by the economic evaluations. The setting for a new strategy in harvesting became more difficult and caused to more criticisms, because the economic profitability and quality of output were two different ends of a product or an output. Therefore, the developing of integrated approach to assure the better output requires great potential. The concept of mechanical harvesting was given an innovative potential to the plantations as the best solution for labour shortage at the harvesting operation. Therefore the plantation people were looking for a better harvesting approach from that. However, the leading solution from existing mechanical harvesting is not efficient to overcome the labour shortage and high cost of production. This research is to evaluate the impacts of mechanical harvesting using the experimental data obtained for harvesting with different mechanical devices against the manual harvesting. Methodology Second year Vegetative Propagated (VP) tea field was alienated and plot was made which included 3000 tea bushes. Uniformity of each bush was assured with the age, soil quality etc. Field experiment was conducted with the Completely Randomized Block Design that followed 3 treatments, 3 replicates and 3 blocks. There were 3 treatments namely machine (T1), shear (T2) and manual harvesting (T3). Three blocks were established in terms of the variability of slope at the land (A, B, C). Therefore the nuisance factor was the slope. Each block was divided into three plots that each had 333 plants. These plots were again divided into three sub plots that each had 111 plants. Plot which consisted of 111 plants was taken as one replicate and therefore one block contained three treatments and three replicates and altogether 09 experimental units. Three blocks contained total 27 experimental units. Randomization procedure was done by using the lottery method. Independent variable was the method of harvesting. Profitability of each method was reviewed by concerning the various aspects of output including the indicators for productivity and quality. Those dependent variables are the yield (Kg Ha Round Acceptable flush (%), Harvesting capacity (Ha Day Labour ), Productivity (Kg Day Labour ). Quality of harvested green leaves was monitored by concentrating on harvesting policies and shoot growth pattern. Data collection was carried out for 10 consecutive plucking rounds.Item Comparison of Dry Matter Partitioning of Organically and Conventionally Grown Tea for Carbon Sequestration Potential(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2012) Premarathna, E.N.M.; Mohotti, K.M.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.; Amarasena, D.Climate change is evident in almost all the regions in the world. In agriculture, it poses a significant impact in relation to productivity, quality and sustainability. Carbon sequestration is an adaptation strategy to climate change. Organic agriculture has a greater potential to sequester carbon in biomass and soil than most forms of conventional agriculture (Fan et al, 2005). Information on Carbon storage by tea plantations can fill the gap for comparison with native forests and changes in agricultural land use (Kamau et ed., 2008). However, the scientific validations to carbon storage in tea either in conventional and organic systems are scares. Therefore, it was identified important to generate information on dry matter partitioning of the tea bush and to compare the organic carbon content as dry matter partitioning of each part of the tea bush grown conventionally and organically to establish carbon sequestration potentials of organically grown tea as compared to conventionally grown teaItem Compliance to international Food Safety Regulations: In Tea Small Holding Sector with Special Reference to Kandy District Sri Lanka(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2010) Rathnayaka, R.M.S.D.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.; Kithsiri, K.H.S.K.Tea is the second most popular drink in the world after water. Although Sri Lanka has been producing and exporting tea for over 125 years, sufficient attention has not been paid to marketing aspects of tea. The percentage of value addition has to be gradually increased to augment the profit. Assurance of quality is a form of quality insurance which guarantees production quality and safety standards to consumers. The subject of food safety has at present caused a great concern, from recent past Japan and European Union have stipulated the Maximum Residue Level (MRL) for various pesticides in tea. Therefore, efforts have to be made to avoid all possible ways of build-up of residues in made tea. The study was aimed to assess the current situation of pesticide application in tea small holding sector with respect to international food safety regulations of tea —MRL and to identify the causes for non adoption of recommended practices on MRL. A questionnaire based survey was carried out to collect the data from random sample of 45 tea small holders in Kandy district. The level of adoption of MRL and the relationship between the level of adoption and other explanatory variables were determined. Result revealed that the adoption of recommended practices on MRL of tea small holders was significantly varied with the farming experience, education level of tea small holder, awareness on MRL and use of hired labour for tea farming. The most important constraints perceived by tea small holders are lack of information on MRL and lack of labour. Key words: International Food Safety Regulations, Maximum Residue Level, Adoption, Recommended practices on MRLItem Development of a Herbal Iced Tea from Broken Mixed Fannings (BMF) incorporated with Butterfly Pea Flowers (Clitoria ternatea)(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2013) Bandara, K.M.H.G.A.S.; Alakolanga, A.G.A.W.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.; Thalagoda, U.A.Tea has been used across the world for decades without any documentation about foodborn illnesses attributable to the good sanitation practices.Tea is proven to be a healthy beverage because of the chemical compounds that contain in tea.Therefore adding a natural herb to tea can amplify the quality and the value of the beverage.Consumption of herbal tea is a one of the methods that can be put into practice to have a healty life.Clitoria ternatea is a thai herb and capable for lessen the risk of having different illnesess.The study was conducted to development of a herbal iced tea by using Clitoria ternatea flowers, Broken Mixed Fannings tea grade and mint flavor.Clitoria ternatea single petal blue flowers were collected and cleaned under running tap water.Then the flowers were air dried under room temperature and ground to obtain the desired partical size.By blending Clitoria ternatea flowers and Broken Mixed Fannings tea, five treatments were prepared. Sensory analysis was conducted by ten experienced tea tasters to acquire best dosage of Clitoria ternatea flowers and Broken Mixed Fannings tea for herbal iced tea development. Combinations of these functional ingredients extract were prepared and evaluated. Sensory Analysis was completed by using Kruskal-Wallis Test in Minitab software. Kruskal-Wallis macros were used to obtain the pairwise differences in the parameters.Conover- Inman Method was used for selection of best treatments. Sensory evaluation results exposed that there were significant differences between treatments with respects to color, taste, aroma, mouth feel and overall acceptability for beverage preference. The findings of microbial study was proved that total plate counts in the formulated beverages were secured to use even after kept for one and half months at room temperature.Results of physico-chemical analysis was revealed that eventhough the pH was decreased with the time the beverage was assured for the consumption compared with values of other beverages available in the market.Item Effect of Enzymatic Discoloration Inhibitor on Plasticity of Sole Crepe Rubber(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2013) Somarathna, W.D.S.P.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.; Dalpathadu, K.A.P.Rubber plant (Hevea brasiliansis) is a member of the spurge family Euphobiaceae. Milky latex is extracted from the bark of tree which is basically used industry of dry rubber and latex based. Durability of rubber product is one of the most important quality character sought by the customer. Therefore, manufacturers of rubber products try to protect good properties throughout the consuming time period. Durability of raw rubber product is affected by aging properties. The degradation of raw rubber with the time is common for most of the rubber based products and as a result the properties of raw rubber deteriorated and lead to a low product’s performance. Thermal oxidation is one of factors which badly affect on the aging property of raw rubber products. The rubber molecular weight of product will be reduced from thermal oxidation (Swanson et al, 1979). Resistance to thermal oxidation is measured by plasticity retention index. Sole crepe rubber manufacturing industry always tries to produce higher grade sole crepe. Colour, clearness and purity are the quality parameters used in grading of sole crepe. The colour of sole crepe rubber is sole crepe manufacturing industry under fractionation step, Sodium metabisulfite (enzymatic inhibitor) is used to prevent enzymatic discoloration (Tillekeratne, et al, 2003). Through this process, resistance of oxidative components is removed with yellow fraction. Therefore, this research was carried out to determine the effect of Sodium metabisulfite on plasticity of different selected rubber clones.Item Environmental Efficiency of Tea Production: The Case of Uva Tea Growing Region in Sri Lanka(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2020) Chathurika, T.V.L.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.; Banagala, C.H.M.Sri Lanka tea industry needs to improve its productivity to remain competitive in the international tea market. Tea producers as individual decision-making units have a greater responsibility towards achieving and sustaining the required level of productivity. Many factors influence the productivity of tea producers, however, production environment characterized by the weather variables such as temperature, rainfall, and wet days are beyond the producer’s control. The analysis of these environmental factors within a frame of total factor productivity concept or environmental efficiency analysis captures the role of the production environment of the producer. Surprisingly, studies on analysing environmental efficiency as a measure of the productivity of perennial plantation commercial crop production units are seldom in the literature. Based on a monthly panel data from 12 different tea estates on the Uva region over 19 years (2000-2018), this study analyses the environmental efficiency of estate level tea production. Specifically, we use a stochastic frontier production function to reveal the total factor productivity index (TFPI) for the selected estates over 19 years and decompose to the environmental efficiency of the tea production. According to our findings, the environmental efficiency scores of estate level tea production vary from 0.86 to 1.05 over the period from 2000 to 2018. More importantly, the environmental efficiency of 14 years throughout the studied period is less than one indicating the estates of the Uva region were operating in a poor productive environment. Our findings suggest that climate change impacts tea production moreover, these environmental factors may also affect the production environment of tea plantations in other tea growing regions in Sri Lanka. Keywords: Productivity, Total Factor Productivity Index, Environmental efficiency, PlantationItem Evaluation of Suitability of Disulfide based Natural Product as a Reclaiming Agent for Ground Rubber Tyre(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2013) Rathnawardhana, M.K.N.N.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.; Edirisinghe, D.G.Reclaimed ground rubber tyre is a solution for the shortage of raw rubber and the rise in the cost of virgin rubbers. Also, it reduces the rubber waste and hence the pollution caused by that waste. Therefore, there is a continual development of reclaiming technologies over the last few years. Ground rubber tyre (GRT) is already a vulcanized material. In the vulcanization process of rubber compounds crosslinks occur between polymer chains. Many researchers have shown that bonds between GRT and the rubber matrix are very weak because of the crosslink structure of GRT and lack of reactive sites on the GRT surface, resulting in a decrease of the mechanical properties of GRT and virgin rubber blend vulcanizates. A possible way to overcome this problem is to break the sulfur crosslinks in GRT before blending with other polymers. Therefore, work has been carried out in the past to modify GRT to enhance interfacial adhesion between the two phases. This process is called reclaiming or devulcanization. Zhang, et al., (2009) compared rubber blends containing raw GRT and rubber blends containing devulcanized GRT and have concluded that the rubber blends containing devulcanized GRT were easier to mix and exhibited much better mechanical properties than natural rubber/GRT vulcanizates. There are several physical and chemical devulcanization techniques. Physical and chemical processes normally are energy demanding or require hazardous chemicals. Tetramethylthiuram disulfide (TMTD) has been used as one of the disulphide reclaiming agents for GRT. TMTD is a synthetic and hazardous chemical. Therefore finding a natural reclaiming agent is a potentially attractive recycling and utilizing way of GRT. In this study disulfide based natural product (NP) was used as the reclaiming agent for ground rubber tyre (GRT) with the aim of replacing the hazardous reclaiming agent TMTD to formulate the tyre tread compounds. Methodology The current study was carried out at the Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka (RRISL), Ratmalana. Laboratory analysis was done at RRISL. In this study as step one, a series of samples of reclaimed GRT was produced by adding different amounts of the selected natural product and one sample was produced by adding TMTD. In the second step, rubber compounds were produced by blending the reclaimed rubber prepared using different amounts of NP and TMTD with virgin natural rubber (NR).In the third step, rubber vulcanizates were produced using the compounds prepared in step 2. Cure characteristics, physico-mechanical properties and anti-oxidant property of both rubber compounds and vulcanizates were evaluated and compared with those of the control; blend compound containing virgin NR and reclaimed rubber prepared with TMTD. Treatments adopted were 5phr (parts per hundred parts rubber) of TMTD [Control (1)], 1 phr of NP(2),3 phr of NP(3),5 phr of NP(4),7 phr of NP(5),9 phr of NP(6). The data were analyzed adopting the analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Minitab 16 software programme. Significant means of treatments were separated using the Least Significant Difference p<0.05.Item Factors Affecting on Supply of Standard Tea Leaves (Case of Bought Leaf Factories in Ratnapura District)(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2013) Atugoda, R.M.R.S.B.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.; Thalagoda, S.A.Among all stakeholders in Sri Lankan tea industry, tea smallholders and bought leaf factories have been playing a significant role. Processing of bought leaf supplied by the smallholders, which comes from diverse sources experience difficulties as the supply comprised of coarse leaves and leaves with physical damages. The standard of leaf is the major determinants of leaf quality practiced in bought leaf factories. This study was carried out to evaluate the efficiency of existing services provided by brought leaf factory and to provide recommendation to develop the current system. A survey using structured questionnaire was carried out to collect the data from random sample of 150 tea smallholders who supply green leaf to the Sunhill Tea Factory (Pvt) Ltd. The Multiple Linear Regression Model was used to find out the relationship between quantity of standard green leaf supplied and the relevant explanatory variables. Descriptive statistical analyze method was used to evaluate the efficiency of existing services available to the smallholders. And recommendations were made according to the suggestions gathered during the interview. Result revealed that the quantity of standard green leaf supplied was significantly determined by the amount paid for ‘A’ category green leaf supplied, amount paid for ‘B’ category green leaf supplied, adoption level of good management practices to maintain standard of green leaf, adoption level of good cultural practices to produce good quality green leaf, usage of family labour for the plucking and availability of advance facilities from the factory have positive relationship at 5 % significant level and only distance from tea land to the factory negatively related at 10 % significant level. And most of the existing available services to the smallholders are operating at inefficient condition.Item Factors Affecting on the Global Market Share of Sri Lankan Tea(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2013) Rajakaruna, S.C.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.The tea industry of Sri Lanka has not performed well recently in the competitive global tea market. The slowing of growth is creating more global competition for market share. The country is conceding its market share to emerging producers like Kenya and other African producers. As the global tea industry is very competitive, the slow market growth means each producer faces the challenge of maintaining their position (Ali et al, 1997). Market share is an effective indicator of global competitiveness. Yet market share of Sri Lankan tea industry is mainly affected by various internal and external factors. Therefore, this research was carried out to determine the major internal factors affecting on the market share of Sri Lankan tea and to forecast the trend of Market Share with the identified internal factors. Methodology Time series data on average black tea yield in Kilograms and Sri Lanka’s world percentage share of tea exports from 1987 to 2011 were collected from statistical bulletin published by Sri Lanka Tea Board and time series data on cost of production of tea, Free on board price (F.O.B Price), value added percentage of GDP, Colombo auction prices, quantity sold at Colombo auction from 1987 to 2011 were collected from annual reports of central bank of Sri Lanka, which provided a total of 25 years tea industry data. MINITAB 15 software was used to get the basic descriptive statistics, correlation, multiple regression analysis and Trend analysis. Correlation analysis was done to determine the relationship between the factors. Then Multiple Linear Regression was used to analyze the relationship between independent variables and dependent variable. Trend analysis for Market share, Colombo auction price, cost of production and productivity was employed by using Minitab 15 Statistical software and based on MAPE value, the best model was selected.Item Impact of Broker - Producer Interaction on Tea Producer's Satisfaction in Price Realization(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2012) Dasanayaka, R.M.S.N.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.; Rathnayaka, R.M.S.D.Sri Lankan Tea industry is one of oldest and economically important industry in the country. Teas that produced within the country are primarily marketed through Colombo tea auction and then exported to other countries either in bulk or value added form. Auction takes place among five important stake holders namely Auction Organizers, Manufacturers, Brokers!, Buyers and Warehouse keepers (Hazarika, 2011). Manufacturers do not have any active role in this system and give the authority of selling their tea to concern broker. Brokers receive 1% brokerage from producer for this service (Kumekawa, 2011). Brokers and producers interact in various ways to get a better price realization at the auction because higher prices realized by tea will increase the revenue of both parties. But producer's satisfaction on the price they get may vary depending on their perceptions on price to be realized. The term satisfaction is defined according to the level they achieve their targets in terms of prices in this research. If the target is reached or exceeded, producer is satisfied. On the contrary, it is the dissatisfaction (Patterson et a/., 1997 and Peter & Olson, 1996). The study was aimed to assess the impact of broker producer interaction in producer's satisfaction in price realization and to identify constrains faced by producers in adoption of broker's manufacturing advices. Further the study focused to give suggestions for effective interaction between broker and producer.Item Impact of Rainfall Variation on Tea (Camellia sinensis L.) Yield in Uva Medium Region(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2013) Jayasundara, J.M.M.Y.B.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.; Karunaratne, G.U.Tea has been main stay of Sri Lanka’s economy for more than a century and still continues to occupy an important place. Different clmatic parameters affect on tea yield in various degrees. But rainfall pattern (length of dry and wet seasons) and temperature are two key factors affect on the variability of tea production. Generally 2500-3000 mm of annual rainfall is optimum while 1200 mm minimum. Minimum monthly rainfall requirement is quoted as 50 mm (Watson and Zoysa, 2008). Tea yield that declined due to lack of rainfall is about 29-81kg month of rainfall deficit below the optimum rainfall (Wijeratne et al., 2007). Uva is one of the major tea planting area in Sri Lanka and famous for exotically aromatic flavor (Anonymous, 2000).This region is vulnerable to climate changes and it reported highest negative yield change in past year (Sarath and Abeysinghe, 2012). Therefore this study was amied at quantifying the impact of rainfall variation and determine the optimum rainfall level on tea yield. Eighteen estates are located in the Uva medium region and those estates belong to five agro ecological zones (AEZ). Sample was based on tea land extent of different agro ecological zones and accessibility. Two estates from IM1a, One estate from IM2b and Five estates from IU3c were selected. Data were collected for past ten year period (2003 - 2012) and monthly variations in following parameters like Production (yield) , yield productivity (Kg per month), Made yield tea (Kg per month), Yield (Made tea kg ha month), Climate data and Rainfall (mm) were considered. Rainfall data and production data were collected from estate records. Averaged yield values were derived for agro ecological regions where there were data for more than one estate. Quantification of rainfall variation on tea yield was done by using quadratic regression analysis and highly vulnerable area was identified by assiuming 10mm deviation from optimum rainfall level.Analysis was conducted separately for each agro ecological zone.Item Impacts of Rainfall Shocks on Tea Production: Evidence from Plantations of Uva Regio(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2021) Koommala, D.P.J.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.Tea is a major perennial plantation crop in Sri Lanka because of its significant contribution to the national economy. Tea plants are generally grown in rainfed systems and rainfall pattern and distribution are key factors on the variability of tea production. In recent years, there has been an increase in the frequency of extreme weather events. According to the Sri Lanka country report on climate change, it was reported that the extreme rainfall events will increase as a result of climate change. This study estimates the impact of rainfall shocks on tea production of Uva region based on monthly panel data from 12 different tea estates in Uva region over a 19-year period (2000-2018). The fixed-effect model was chosen for the analysis based on the Hausman specification test. The deviation of the monthly average rainfall from the long term mean in the respective period was used to define positive and negative rainfall shocks. Tea production was regressed along with weather and non-weather variables as predictors. The diagnostics checks were done and cross-sectional time series feasible generalized least squares regression results were used for the interpretation. A statistically significant relationship between rainfall shocks and tea production was seen in the Uva region. Results revealed that both positive and negative rainfall shocks negatively affect tea production. Thus, the impact of negative rainfall shocks was higher than the impact of positive rainfall shocks on tea production. Keywords: Climate change; FGLS regression; Panel data; Rainfall shocks; Tea productionItem Influence of Vermicompost Technology on Solubility of Eppawala Rock Phosphate(Uva Wellassa University of Srilanka, 2011) Rathnayake, R.M.N.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.; Senarathne, S.H.S.Note: See the PDF Version This study was conducted to determine the influence of vermicompost technology on solubility of ERP. Earthworms play a major role in vermicomposting. The most common type of earthworms used for vermicomposting is brandling worms (Eisenia foetida). Food is ingested through the mouth into a stomach (crop), which retains food and has the ability to expand. From there, food goes into the gizzard where sand and muscular contractions churn the food and increase the surface area. From there, food enters the intestine which has the ability to absorb food, then food exits through the anus. This final product consists of low power organic acids, like Malate, Oxalate, Citrate, etc. This low power organic acid is helps to increase the solubility of ERP. ERP is currently mined for use as a fertilizer for perennial crops such as tea, rubber and coconut. This is gives considerable value to the country because Phosphate deposits are non-renewable and dwindling resources in the world like fossil fuel. Also this is very economically important natural resource in Sri Lanka. Current production is 25 000 metric tonnes per year while reserves are 40 million metric tonnes. This saves nearly Rs 20 billion annually spent for importing fertilizer. This is important for providing the Phosphorus (P) fertilizer requirement, because P plays an important role in many physiological and bio chemical functions that are important to plants and animals. Major problem can be seen in ERP is the less solubility. The core bodies at Eppawala contain 42% P2O5 and citric acid solubility of different components varies from 4 to 6%. The parent rocks are mainly made up of calcite, dolomite and apatite, with lesser amounts of ilmenite, magnetite, pyrite, forsterite, phlogopite, enstatite, magnesite, diopside, tremolite and spine!. The Eppawala rocks are characterized by low silica (0.41%), high phosphorous (10.58%) and high strontium content (Gunawardena, 2003). Therefore in this study, an experiment was made to increase the availability of P by using vermicomposting.Item Oil Recovery from Desiccated Coconut(DC) Process Water to Produce Value Added Coconut Oil(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2010) Jeewanthi, K.M.P.; Asanka, J.R,K.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.Sri Lanka is the second largest producer of desiccated coconut (DC) in the world. A typical factory with a daily capacity of 50,000 coconuts discharges 40,000 to 60,000 liters of wastewater per day. The high fat content of the wet process water is the major environmental problem caused by the DC mills. A pilot scale system for recovery of high quality coconut oil from the DC process water was developed aiming at the reduction of the environmental problems, The oil recovery system consists of four main successive sections. The first one included collection of wet process water into a collection tank using PVC gutters & pipes. The second stage was separation of coconut milk (light cream) with 30% fat content and aqueous portion with 0.5% fat content using a gravity separation tank made out of stainless steel. The third section of the procedure was concentration of the light cream and produces a thick cream containing 50% oil and 30% moisture. In the last stage the thick cream was heated in a steam jacketed kettle using steam at 100 ± 2 °C under different time periods to break the emulsion. The results showed that heating duration of 2 1/2 hrs represented the most effective extraction conditions with an oil yield of 81 from 20 I of concentrated thick cream. Moisture content, color, saponification value and iodine value of the extracted oil were 0.12%, 0.7 (Y+5R), 262 and 10 respectively. The result of the gas chromatography analysis showed that the oil contains high lauric acid content (46.03%). Evaluation of shelf life for 2 1/2 months showed an increase in free fatty acids content from 0.2% to 0.28% and peroxide value from 0.9 to 2 (ml of 0.002 N sodium thiosulphate per one gram of oil). The results of sensory evaluation revealed that the extracted oil is acceptable for edible purposes. The technique for recovering oil from DC wet process water is a significant improvement in profitability over the traditional method. Key words: Desiccated coconut process water, Gravity separation, Centrifugation, coconut oilItem Perception of Tea Small Holders in Badulla District in Adopting Mix Crop Cultivation(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2012) Swarnamali, M.A.N.; Premathilake, K.G.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.; Jayasinghe, H,A.S.L.Tea is a humid loving tree species, the growth of tea is negatively affected by strong light and high temperature (Ekanayake, 2003). There is a potential to supplement the shade with other tree species of economically important as the method of mix crop cultivation with tea (Jayasinghe, 1982). It is important to maintain adequate shade as well as to increase the unit land productivity. It was aimed to study the factors that affect the willingness of tea smallholders for adopting mix crop cultivation in tea small holdings in Badulla district.Item Potential of Biofilm Biofertilizer Application in Paddy Soil Carbon Sequestration in Sri Lanka: An Economic Feasibility Analysis(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2020) Ekanayake, S.N.B.; Seneviratne, G.; Premarathna, M.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.; Banagala, C.H.M.; Hearth, H.M.S.K.Anthropogenic emissions of carbon (C) to the atmosphere at higher rates have led to global warming and climate change. Soil carbon sequestration (SCS) has been recognized as the process that stores atmospheric C for a long period without escaping back to the atmosphere. Globally, expanding agricultural lands has come to play a major role in SCS in the phase of degradation of natural ecosystems like forests by deforestation, fire, etc. The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential of Biofilm biofertilizer (BFBF) application in SCS under rice cultivation. Soil stable C was estimated as sequestered soil C by using organic carbon (Walkley-Black) and oxidizable carbon in the BFBF application and the farmers’ chemical fertilizer (CF) alone application. Soil samples were collected from paddy fields in 25 representative locations in several districts of Sri Lanka in three consecutive seasons: Yala 2018, Maha 2018/19, and Yala 2019. The results showed that the SCS was significantly (p<0.05) higher in the BFBF practice in every season. This is due to increased microbial C assimilation in the root zone of soil. The BFBF practice sequestered 19 t C ha-1 year–1 over farmers’ CF practice, showing an enormous potential to gain income through soil C trading. There was also an increasing trend in the paddy grain yield up to ca. 30% under the same practice. Thus, during the next five years, if the BFBF practice would be implemented island wide, the potential income from trading C will be ca. 190 billion rupees. In conclusion, the BFBF practice can be considered as an eco-friendly and economically viable method to replace the farmers’ current practice of CF alone application. Keywords: Biofilm biofertilizer, Carbon trading, Rice cultivation, Soil carbon sequestrationItem A Rationale, in Certitude of Good Manufacturing Practices(GMP)for Ceylon Cinnamon, Trading in the Export Market(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2010) De Silva, D.I.P.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.Cinnamon Is one of the best foreign exchange earning spice. In Sri Lanka the demand in the world market depends on the quality of the cinnamon produced. The local Cinnamon industry is characterized by small — holdings, primitive technology, low productivity, high cost of production and unorganized marketing system which has adverse impact on export promotion. Though we are famous for 'True Cinnamon", yet we have not been capable of meeting the most basic quality standards for Cinnamon. The objective of this study is to analyze the status of processers and export firms in positioning GMP for their processes when producing Cinnamon for export markets. Specific objectives are identification of constraints which processers and export firms tend to face in setting up GMP for Cinnamon processes and identification of grounds for not gaining price increments for GMP holding Cinnamon products. Seventy five randomly selected Cinnamon processors in Galle district, and 25 Cinnamon exporting companies in Colombo district were selected for this study. Cost of processing, material wastage, awareness of GMP, market information recovery, buyer inquiry of quality standards and benefit awareness of quality standards were identified as facts influencing on implementation of GMP for processors. For Cinnamon exporting companies, quantity of exports, business status; major product of exportation, buyer inquiry of quality standards and benefit awareness of quality standards were identified as facts influencing on implementation of GMP. Lack of awareness on selling point and less processing quantity in GMP holders were constraints in implementing quality standards by processors. Less awareness on processing and poor monitoring of Cinnamon processing were observed as constraints of exporters. Hence, there is not yet a proper demand for GMP, Cinnamon exporting companies has been unable to offer a higher price for GMP owned products. Key Words: Cinnamon, Quality standards, GMP, Exporting companies, ProcessorsItem The Shoot Growth Pattern of Tea (Camellia Sinensis) During Different Stages of the Pruning Cycle(Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka, 2012) Abeyrathna, O.P.I.A.; Wijerathne, T.L.; Gunathilaka, R.P.D.; Jayasinghe, H.A.S.L.Tea (Camellia sinensis) is a woody ever green perennial tree. Different tea cultivar has different growth characteristics. The shoot replacement cycle is a measure of the time taken (days) for an axillary bud to grow into a shoot suitable for harvesting when released from apical dominance (Carr, 2000). There are three principal yield components in tea, namely the number of shoots harvested (per m2), the mean shoot dry mass at harvest (g) and the time taken for an axillary bud to grow into a shoot suitable for harvesting (Carr, 2000). Tea shoot growth varies with the clone, the season, inputs such as nitrogen (N), and stage in the pruning cycle. According to the hand book on tea the removal of leaf bearing branches in a tea bush at a given height is called pruning. This may also affect the pattern of shoot growth too. Investigating shoot growth pattern and factors affecting are very help full to determine the suitable plucking policies (Wijeratne, 2001) and it may also help to decide the other management practices to maximize the yield.